Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-1-2-development-of-globalisation [Revision notes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes.md) › [A Level](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level.md) › [Geography](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography.md) › [Edexcel](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel.md) › Development of Globalisation # Development of Globalisation Geography: Edexcel A Level, topic 4.1.2 ## Globalisation in the 19th Century Globalisation is not a new process. The British Empire can be seen as an early example of globalisation. But several factors have sped up globalisation during the 19th century: ### Advances in transport technology ![Advances in transport technology](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/physics/AQA%20New%20Modules/2.1.5/train%20tracks.jpg) - World trade began to grow more rapidly towards the end of the 1800s. - The growth of railways, telegraphs and steamships all accelerated the rate of globalisation. ### Emergence of TNCs ![Emergence of TNCs](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-04/4fbf6927-87d4-4fc5-a15b-adc289184d8a/shutterstock_171153017.jpg) - Transnational corporations began to emerge because advances in technology allowed goods produced in one country to be transported to another country. - E.g. DuPont was a chemicals and gunpowder manufacturer founded in 1802. Advances in transport allowed DuPont to start to sell internationally. ### Britain's role in globalisation ![Britain's role in globalisation](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-05/4029deb3-33ff-457a-8f7a-e29294f784e0/shutterstock_1100706887.jpg) - Britain was the world leader in steam power in the 19th century. - Having this technological advantage allowed Britain to transport goods and people to other parts of the British Empire (mainly Africa and Asia). ## Globalisation in the 20th Century Globalisation is not a new process. The British Empire can be seen as an early example of globalisation. Several factors have sped up globalisation during the 20th century: ### Transport - aeroplanes ![Transport - aeroplanes](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-04/94653b9d-2f8c-4464-91f9-d29558503df0/PhysicsC.jpg) - In the 20th century, technology in transportation continued to advance. - The development of jet aircraft to replace aircraft propellers happened during World War 2, first by the Germans and then the Americans. - Jet aircraft were first used for military purposes. But after the Second World War, they were used for passengers. This was the start of commercial airlines. ### Transport - containerisation ![Transport - containerisation](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/85f9f04c-eb5b-48f7-a39f-a8866b53dd10/5808335.jpg) - Containerisation accelerated globalisation materially. - Containerisation is the protocol of a uniform container size that can be placed on all ships and transported all over the world. - They can also be called intermodal containers. - The key idea is that by making sure that all containers are the same size, ships and ports around the world can be fitted to deal with all types of goods in the containers. This makes global shipping become far quicker and cheaper. ### 'Shrinking world' effect !['Shrinking world' effect](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/biology/7.5.1%20-%20Food%20Production/container-1611490_640-min.jpg) - Containerisation and jet aircraft led to the 'shrinking world' effect. - The ‘shrinking-world’ effect means that while the physical distance between places remains the same, places feel much closer together. ## Globalisation in the 21st Century Globalisation is not a new process. The British Empire can be seen as an early example of globalisation. Globalisation has continued to accelerate, with further advances and the diffusion of innovations in the 21st century. ### ICT and mobile advances ![ICT and mobile advances](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/d085ea21-5b6b-4081-a6b2-f593ae832091/Network-System-Internet-.jpg) - The rapid development of Information Communication Technology (ICT) and mobile communication (e.g. mobile phones, the internet, social networking, electronic banking and fibre optics) all accelerated globalisation. - These technological developments have been particularly important in developing countries where a lack of infrastructure has been a major factor in the lack of economic growth. ### Leap-frogging ![Leap-frogging](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/ca1d80ea-699d-49da-a542-89370922c8fe/Mobile-Banking-Testing.jpg) - Many developing countries are now leap-frogging now out-dated technology. For example, some countries don’t build landline phones and just use mobile phones. - In Kenya, people use electronic banking and their mobile phones to make payments (with something called M-Pesa), often before having a bank card. ### Time-space compression ![Time-space compression](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-07/ba0efdcb-4816-46d6-aa4f-bc6af0760e66/WAN-Wired-Area-Connection-City-Lights-Night-.jpg) - ICT and mobile communication advances have lowered the costs of global communications and contributed to time-space compression. - Time-space compression allows the relative distances between places to feel far shorter. - Of the top 10 most valuable TNC brands in 2018, six are technology companies. This shows the importance of digital software and mobile phones. - Apple is the most valuable brand, with Google and Microsoft coming second and third. ## Test yourself on Development of Globalisation - When did world trade begin to grow rapidly? - Which of the following is an example of early (pre-1800's) globalisation? - What were jet aircrafts originally used for before carrying passengers? - What are many developing countries now doing to out-dated technology? [Practise this topic for free](https://app.senecalearning.com/classroom/course/e863f76a-c037-441e-b405-96c1e8649284/section/1480b89f-8e3d-4e4a-9539-bce447ade049/session) - Previous topic: [4.1.1 Intro to Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-1-1-intro-to-globalisation.md) - Next topic: [4.1.3 Economic Policy & Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-1-3-economic-policy-and-globalisation.md) ## Geography: Edexcel A Level contents ### 1 Tectonic Processes & Hazards - 1.1 Tectonic Processes & Hazards - [1.1.1 Tectonic Plates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-1-1-tectonic-plates.md) - [1.1.2 Distribution of Tectonic Hazards](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-1-2-distribution-of-tectonic-hazards.md) - [1.1.3 Theoretical Frameworks](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-1-3-theoretical-frameworks.md) - [1.1.4 Earthquakes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-1-4-earthquakes.md) - [1.1.5 Earthquake Hazards](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-1-5-earthquake-hazards.md) - [1.1.6 Volcanoes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-1-6-volcanoes.md) - [1.1.7 Tsunamis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-1-7-tsunamis.md) - [1.1.8 End of Topic Test - Tectonic Processes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-1-8-end-of-topic-test-tectonic-processes.md) - [1.1.9 Exam-Style Question - Earthquakes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-1-9-exam-style-question-earthquakes.md) - 1.2 Natural Disasters - [1.2.1 Introduction to Natural Disasters](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-2-1-introduction-to-natural-disasters.md) - [1.2.2 Impacts of Hazards](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-2-2-impacts-of-hazards.md) - [1.2.3 Comparing Hazards](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-2-3-comparing-hazards.md) - [1.2.4 Development & Governance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-2-4-development-and-governance.md) - 1.3 Natural Disaster Case Studies - [1.3.1 Tohoku Earthquake & Tsunami](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-3-1-tohoku-earthquake-and-tsunami.md) - [1.3.2 Gorkha Earthquake](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-3-2-gorkha-earthquake.md) - [1.3.3 Mount Merapi Eruption](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-3-3-mount-merapi-eruption.md) - 1.4 Trends & Patterns - [1.4.1 Disaster Trends](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-4-1-disaster-trends.md) - [1.4.2 Prediction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-4-2-prediction.md) - 1.5 Disaster Modification - [1.5.1 Hazard Management](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-5-1-hazard-management.md) - [1.5.2 Modifications](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-5-2-modifications.md) - [1.5.3 End of Topic Test - Natural Disasters](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-5-3-end-of-topic-test-natural-disasters.md) - [1.5.4 Exam-Style Question - Disaster Modification](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/1-5-4-exam-style-question-disaster-modification.md) ### 2 Option 2A: Glaciated Landscapes & Change - 2.1 Glaciated Landscapes Over Time - [2.1.1 Timeline of Glacial Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/2-1-1-timeline-of-glacial-change.md) - [2.1.2 Natural Causes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/2-1-2-natural-causes.md) - [2.1.3 Ice Distributions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/2-1-3-ice-distributions.md) - 2.2 Periglacial Landscapes - [2.2.1 Periglacial Processes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/2-2-1-periglacial-processes.md) - [2.2.2 Periglacial Landforms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/2-2-2-periglacial-landforms.md) - 2.3 Glacial Processes - [2.3.1 Mass Balance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/2-3-1-mass-balance.md) - [2.3.2 Glacial Movement](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/2-3-2-glacial-movement.md) - 2.4 Glacial Landforms - [2.4.1 Landscapes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/2-4-1-landscapes.md) - [2.4.2 Erosional Landforms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/2-4-2-erosional-landforms.md) - [2.4.3 Erosional Landforms 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/2-4-3-erosional-landforms-2.md) - [2.4.4 Erosional Landforms 3](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/2-4-4-erosional-landforms-3.md) - [2.4.5 Depositional Landforms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/2-4-5-depositional-landforms.md) - [2.4.6 Fluvioglaciation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/2-4-6-fluvioglaciation.md) - 2.5 The Future of Glaciated Landscapes - [2.5.1 The Value of Glaciated Landscapes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/2-5-1-the-value-of-glaciated-landscapes.md) - [2.5.2 The Value of Glaciated Landscapes 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/2-5-2-the-value-of-glaciated-landscapes-2.md) - [2.5.3 Threats to Glaciated Landscapes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/2-5-3-threats-to-glaciated-landscapes.md) - [2.5.4 Managing the Threats to Glaciated Landscapes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/2-5-4-managing-the-threats-to-glaciated-landscapes.md) ### 3 Option 2B: Coastal Landscapes & Change - 3.1 Coastal Landscapes - [3.1.1 The Wider Coastal Landscape](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/3-1-1-the-wider-coastal-landscape.md) - [3.1.2 Geological Structure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/3-1-2-geological-structure.md) - [3.1.3 Lithology & Vegetation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/3-1-3-lithology-and-vegetation.md) - 3.2 Coastal Erosion & Deposition - [3.2.1 Shaping Coastlines](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/3-2-1-shaping-coastlines.md) - [3.2.2 Coastal Formations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/3-2-2-coastal-formations.md) - [3.2.3 Sediment Transportation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/3-2-3-sediment-transportation.md) - [3.2.4 Subaerial Processes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/3-2-4-subaerial-processes.md) - 3.3 Coastal Risks - [3.3.1 Sea Level Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/3-3-1-sea-level-change.md) - [3.3.2 Coastal Retreat](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/3-3-2-coastal-retreat.md) - [3.3.3 Coastal Flooding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/3-3-3-coastal-flooding.md) - 3.4 Managing Coastlines - [3.4.1 Consequences of Coastal Recession](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/3-4-1-consequences-of-coastal-recession.md) - [3.4.2 Engineering Management Approaches](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/3-4-2-engineering-management-approaches.md) - [3.4.3 Governance Approaches](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/3-4-3-governance-approaches.md) ### 4 Globalisation - 4.1 Globalisation - [4.1.1 Intro to Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-1-1-intro-to-globalisation.md) - [4.1.2 Development of Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-1-2-development-of-globalisation.md) - [4.1.3 Economic Policy & Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-1-3-economic-policy-and-globalisation.md) - [4.1.4 Government Policy & Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-1-4-government-policy-and-globalisation.md) - [4.1.5 International Organisations & Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-1-5-international-organisations-and-globalisation.md) - [4.1.6 Measuring Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-1-6-measuring-globalisation.md) - [4.1.7 TNCs & Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-1-7-tncs-and-globalisation.md) - [4.1.8 TNCs - Aramco & Anglo-Iranian Oil](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-1-8-tncs-aramco-and-anglo-iranian-oil.md) - 4.2 Negatives of Globalisation - [4.2.1 'Switched Off' Places](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-2-1-switched-off-places.md) - 4.3 Global Shift - [4.3.1 Global Shift for Developing Nations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-3-1-global-shift-for-developing-nations.md) - [4.3.2 Global Shift for Developing Nations 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-3-2-global-shift-for-developing-nations-2.md) - [4.3.3 Global Shift for Developed Nations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-3-3-global-shift-for-developed-nations.md) - [4.3.4 End of Topic Test - Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-3-4-end-of-topic-test-globalisation.md) - 4.4 Migration - [4.4.1 Megacities](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-4-1-megacities.md) - [4.4.2 International Migration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-4-2-international-migration.md) - [4.4.3 Country Interdependence](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-4-3-country-interdependence.md) - 4.5 Culture - [4.5.1 Global Culture](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-5-1-global-culture.md) - [4.5.2 Cultural Erosion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-5-2-cultural-erosion.md) - 4.6 Measuring Development - [4.6.1 Measuring Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-6-1-measuring-development.md) - 4.7 Responses to Globalisation - [4.7.1 Tensions Caused by Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-7-1-tensions-caused-by-globalisation.md) - [4.7.2 Government Control of Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-7-2-government-control-of-globalisation.md) - [4.7.3 Ethical Responses to Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-7-3-ethical-responses-to-globalisation.md) - [4.7.4 End of Topic Test - Migration, Culture, & Response](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/4-7-4-end-of-topic-test-migration-culture-and-response.md) ### 5 Option 4A: Regenerating Places - 5.1 Types of Economies - [5.1.1 Economic Activity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-1-1-economic-activity.md) - [5.1.2 Employment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-1-2-employment.md) - [5.1.3 Economic Activity - Health & Life](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-1-3-economic-activity-health-and-life.md) - [5.1.4 Economic Activity - Education & Inequality](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-1-4-economic-activity-education-and-inequality.md) - 5.2 Function of Places - [5.2.1 Characteristics of Places](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-2-1-characteristics-of-places.md) - [5.2.2 Changes in Places](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-2-2-changes-in-places.md) - [5.2.3 International Influences on Places](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-2-3-international-influences-on-places.md) - [5.2.4 Historic Influences on Places](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-2-4-historic-influences-on-places.md) - [5.2.5 The Perception of Places](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-2-5-the-perception-of-places.md) - [5.2.6 Lived Experience & Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-2-6-lived-experience-and-attachment.md) - 5.3 Regeneration - [5.3.1 Migration & Capital](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-3-1-migration-and-capital.md) - [5.3.2 Success & Regeneration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-3-2-success-and-regeneration.md) - [5.3.3 Tensions & Conflict in Communities](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-3-3-tensions-and-conflict-in-communities.md) - [5.3.4 Regeneration in the UK](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-3-4-regeneration-in-the-uk.md) - [5.3.5 Local Government Policies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-3-5-local-government-policies.md) - [5.3.6 Regeneration Strategies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-3-6-regeneration-strategies.md) - [5.3.7 Measuring Regeneration Success](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-3-7-measuring-regeneration-success.md) - 5.4 Regeneration Case Studies - [5.4.1 Stratford](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-4-1-stratford.md) - [5.4.2 Salford Quays](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-4-2-salford-quays.md) - [5.4.3 Croyde](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/5-4-3-croyde.md) ### 6 Option 4B: Diverse Places - 6.1 Population Structure - [6.1.1 The UK](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-1-1-the-uk.md) - [6.1.2 Population Characteristics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-1-2-population-characteristics.md) - [6.1.3 Government & Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-1-3-government-and-change.md) - 6.2 Past & Present Connections - [6.2.1 International Influence on Places](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-2-1-international-influence-on-places.md) - [6.2.2 Historic Influences on Places](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-2-2-historic-influences-on-places.md) - [6.2.3 The Perception of Places](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-2-3-the-perception-of-places.md) - [6.2.4 Image & Identity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-2-4-image-and-identity.md) - 6.3 Urban & Rural Spaces - [6.3.1 Perceptions of Urban Places](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-3-1-perceptions-of-urban-places.md) - [6.3.2 Perceptions of Rural Places](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-3-2-perceptions-of-rural-places.md) - [6.3.3 Evaluating Living Space](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-3-3-evaluating-living-space.md) - 6.4 Diversity - [6.4.1 UK Migrations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-4-1-uk-migrations.md) - [6.4.2 Challenges](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-4-2-challenges.md) - [6.4.3 Tensions & Conflict](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-4-3-tensions-and-conflict.md) - [6.4.4 Wider Outcomes of Tensions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-4-4-wider-outcomes-of-tensions.md) - [6.4.5 Managing Tensions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-4-5-managing-tensions.md) - 6.5 Urban & Rural Case Studies - [6.5.1 Stakeholders](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-5-1-stakeholders.md) - 6.6 Case Study - Tower Hamlets - [6.6.1 Background](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-6-1-background.md) - [6.6.2 Characteristics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-6-2-characteristics.md) - [6.6.3 Issues](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-6-3-issues.md) - 6.7 Case Study - Sturton-le-Steeple - [6.7.1 Background](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-7-1-background.md) - [6.7.2 Characteristics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-7-2-characteristics.md) - [6.7.3 Issues](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/6-7-3-issues.md) ### 7 The Water Cycle & Water Insecurity (A2 only) - 7.1 Hydrological Processes Global to Local - [7.1.1 Global Hydrological Cycle](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-1-1-global-hydrological-cycle.md) - [7.1.2 Drainage Basin Hydrological Cycle](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-1-2-drainage-basin-hydrological-cycle.md) - [7.1.3 Water Budgets](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-1-3-water-budgets.md) - [7.1.4 River Regimes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-1-4-river-regimes.md) - [7.1.5 Storm Hydrographs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-1-5-storm-hydrographs.md) - 7.2 Influences on the Water Cycle - [7.2.1 Causes of Drought](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-2-1-causes-of-drought.md) - [7.2.2 Impacts of Drought](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-2-2-impacts-of-drought.md) - [7.2.3 Causes of Flooding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-2-3-causes-of-flooding.md) - [7.2.4 Impacts of Flooding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-2-4-impacts-of-flooding.md) - [7.2.5 Climate Change & The Water Cycle](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-2-5-climate-change-and-the-water-cycle.md) - [7.2.6 Impacts of Climate Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-2-6-impacts-of-climate-change.md) - [7.2.7 End of Topic Test - The Water Cycle](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-2-7-end-of-topic-test-the-water-cycle.md) - 7.3 Water Insecurity - [7.3.1 Water Stress](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-3-1-water-stress.md) - [7.3.2 Causes of Water Insecurity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-3-2-causes-of-water-insecurity.md) - [7.3.3 Water Insecurity Risk](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-3-3-water-insecurity-risk.md) - [7.3.4 Conflict Over Water](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-3-4-conflict-over-water.md) - 7.4 Water Supply Management - [7.4.1 Hard Engineering Schemes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-4-1-hard-engineering-schemes.md) - [7.4.2 Sustainable Management](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-4-2-sustainable-management.md) - [7.4.3 Water Treaties & Framework](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-4-3-water-treaties-and-framework.md) - [7.4.4 End of Topic Test - Water Insecurity & Management](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/7-4-4-end-of-topic-test-water-insecurity-and-management.md) ### 8 The Carbon Cycle & Energy Security (A2 only) - 8.1 The Carbon Cycle - [8.1.1 Carbon Stores](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-1-1-carbon-stores.md) - [8.1.2 Carbon Stores 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-1-2-carbon-stores-2.md) - [8.1.3 Biological Carbon](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-1-3-biological-carbon.md) - [8.1.4 Atmospheric Carbon](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-1-4-atmospheric-carbon.md) - [8.1.5 Burning Fossil Fuels](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-1-5-burning-fossil-fuels.md) - 8.2 Energy Consumption - [8.2.1 Consumption](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-2-1-consumption.md) - [8.2.2 Access to Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-2-2-access-to-energy.md) - [8.2.3 Energy Players](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-2-3-energy-players.md) - [8.2.4 Supply & Demand](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-2-4-supply-and-demand.md) - [8.2.5 Pathways](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-2-5-pathways.md) - [8.2.6 End of Topic Test - Carbon & Consumption](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-2-6-end-of-topic-test-carbon-and-consumption.md) - 8.3 Alternative Energy - [8.3.1 Unconventional Fuels](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-3-1-unconventional-fuels.md) - [8.3.2 Non-Fossil Fuels](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-3-2-non-fossil-fuels.md) - [8.3.3 Non-Fossil Fuels 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-3-3-non-fossil-fuels-2.md) - 8.4 Growing Demand for Resources - [8.4.1 Deforestation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-4-1-deforestation.md) - [8.4.2 Water](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-4-2-water.md) - [8.4.3 Climate Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-4-3-climate-change.md) - 8.5 The Future - [8.5.1 Future Uncertainty](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-5-1-future-uncertainty.md) - [8.5.2 Adaptation Strategies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-5-2-adaptation-strategies.md) - [8.5.3 Mitigation Strategies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/8-5-3-mitigation-strategies.md) ### 9 Superpowers (A2 only) - 9.1 Superpowers - [9.1.1 Introduction to Superpowers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-1-1-introduction-to-superpowers.md) - [9.1.2 Superpowers - Economic Power & Size](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-1-2-superpowers-economic-power-and-size.md) - [9.1.3 Superpowers - Political & Military Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-1-3-superpowers-political-and-military-power.md) - [9.1.4 Superpowers - Culture, Demography & Resources](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-1-4-superpowers-culture-demography-and-resources.md) - [9.1.5 Geo-Strategic Location](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-1-5-geo-strategic-location.md) - 9.2 Hard & Soft Power - [9.2.1 Hard & Soft Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-2-1-hard-and-soft-power.md) - [9.2.2 Emerging Powers - China Rivalry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-2-2-emerging-powers-china-rivalry.md) - [9.2.3 Emerging Powers - Chinese Sources of Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-2-3-emerging-powers-chinese-sources-of-power.md) - [9.2.4 Emerging Powers - Brazil](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-2-4-emerging-powers-brazil.md) - [9.2.5 Emerging Powers - Russia](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-2-5-emerging-powers-russia.md) - [9.2.6 Emerging Powers - India](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-2-6-emerging-powers-india.md) - [9.2.7 Theories of Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-2-7-theories-of-development.md) - [9.2.8 Power Case Studies: Chinese One Belt One Road](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-2-8-power-case-studies-chinese-one-belt-one-road.md) - [9.2.9 Power Case Studies: Pakistan Nuclear Arms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-2-9-power-case-studies-pakistan-nuclear-arms.md) - [9.2.10 Power Case Studies: OPEC](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-2-10-power-case-studies-opec.md) - 9.3 IGOs, TNCs & Alliances - [9.3.1 Superpowers & IGOs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-3-1-superpowers-and-igos.md) - [9.3.2 Superpowers & TNCs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-3-2-superpowers-and-tncs.md) - [9.3.3 Superpowers & Global Action](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-3-3-superpowers-and-global-action.md) - [9.3.4 Superpowers & Alliances](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-3-4-superpowers-and-alliances.md) - [9.3.5 Superpowers & the Environment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-3-5-superpowers-and-the-environment.md) - 9.4 Changing Global Influence - [9.4.1 Recent Tensions between Powers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-4-1-recent-tensions-between-powers.md) - [9.4.2 China in Africa & Asia](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-4-2-china-in-africa-and-asia.md) - [9.4.3 Tensions in the Middle East](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-4-3-tensions-in-the-middle-east.md) - [9.4.4 Economic Problems for Superpowers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-4-4-economic-problems-for-superpowers.md) - [9.4.5 Future Pattern of Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/9-4-5-future-pattern-of-power.md) ### 10 Option 8A: Health & Human Rights (A2 only) - 10.1 Human Development - [10.1.1 Measuring Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-1-1-measuring-development.md) - [10.1.2 Factors Improving Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-1-2-factors-improving-development.md) - [10.1.3 Variations in Health](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-1-3-variations-in-health.md) - 10.2 Role of Governments & IGOs - [10.2.1 Targets & Attitudes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-2-1-targets-and-attitudes.md) - [10.2.2 Financial IGOs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-2-2-financial-igos.md) - [10.2.3 The United Nations (UN)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-2-3-the-united-nations-un.md) - [10.2.4 The UN's MDGs & SDGs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-2-4-the-uns-mdgs-and-sdgs.md) - 10.3 Human Rights - [10.3.1 Human Rights](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-3-1-human-rights.md) - [10.3.2 Differences Between Countries](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-3-2-differences-between-countries.md) - [10.3.3 Transitions to Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-3-3-transitions-to-democracy.md) - [10.3.4 Differences Within Countries](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-3-4-differences-within-countries.md) - [10.3.5 The Demand for Equality](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-3-5-the-demand-for-equality.md) - 10.4 Interventions - [10.4.1 Geopolitical Interventions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-4-1-geopolitical-interventions.md) - [10.4.2 International Intervention Players](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-4-2-international-intervention-players.md) - [10.4.3 Evaluating Geopolitical Intervention](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-4-3-evaluating-geopolitical-intervention.md) - [10.4.4 Military Interventions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-4-4-military-interventions.md) - [10.4.5 Evaluating Military Interventions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-4-5-evaluating-military-interventions.md) - 10.5 Development Aid - [10.5.1 Forms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-5-1-forms.md) - [10.5.2 Successes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-5-2-successes.md) - [10.5.3 Criticisms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-5-3-criticisms.md) - [10.5.4 Development Aid & the Environment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-5-4-development-aid-and-the-environment.md) - [10.5.5 Evaluating Development Aid](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-5-5-evaluating-development-aid.md) - [10.5.6 Economic Inequalities](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/10-5-6-economic-inequalities.md) ### 11 Option 8B: Migration & Identity (A2 only) - 11.1 Globalisation & Migration - [11.1.1 Intro to Migration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-1-1-intro-to-migration.md) - [11.1.2 Trends in Migration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-1-2-trends-in-migration.md) - [11.1.3 Common Migration Patterns](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-1-3-common-migration-patterns.md) - [11.1.4 Causes of Migration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-1-4-causes-of-migration.md) - [11.1.5 Restrictions on Migration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-1-5-restrictions-on-migration.md) - 11.2 Consequences of Migration - [11.2.1 Intro to Culture](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-2-1-intro-to-culture.md) - [11.2.2 Social & Demographic Tensions of Migration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-2-2-social-and-demographic-tensions-of-migration.md) - [11.2.3 Political & Economic Tensions of Migration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-2-3-political-and-economic-tensions-of-migration.md) - 11.3 Nation States - [11.3.1 Intro to Nation States](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-3-1-intro-to-nation-states.md) - [11.3.2 Borders](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-3-2-borders.md) - [11.3.3 Nationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-3-3-nationalism.md) - 11.4 Responses to Global Migration - [11.4.1 Responses to Global Migration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-4-1-responses-to-global-migration.md) - [11.4.2 Global Organisations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-4-2-global-organisations.md) - [11.4.3 IGOs and World Trade](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-4-3-igos-and-world-trade.md) - [11.4.4 Financial IGOs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-4-4-financial-igos.md) - [11.4.5 Environmental IGOs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-4-5-environmental-igos.md) - 11.5 Sovereignty & Identity - [11.5.1 Sovereignty & Nationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-5-1-sovereignty-and-nationalism.md) - [11.5.2 Complex Identities](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-5-2-complex-identities.md) - [11.5.3 Challenges to National Identities](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-5-3-challenges-to-national-identities.md) - [11.5.4 Tensions within Nations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-5-4-tensions-within-nations.md) - [11.5.5 Failed States](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/geography/edexcel/11-5-5-failed-states.md)