Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-2-4-nativism

[Revision notes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes.md) › [A Level](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level.md) › [English Language](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language.md) › [AQA](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa.md) › Nativism

# Nativism

English Language: AQA A Level, topic 2.2.4

## Nativism

Nativism is a theory developed by __Noam Chomsky__, and takes up the __‘nature’__ side of the __‘nature vs nurture’__ debate.

### Poverty of stimulus

![Poverty of stimulus](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/biology/5.2.1%20-%20The%20nervous%20system/brain-1845940_640-min.jpg)

- __Chomsky's__ theory states that children cannot learn through the imitation of their caregivers because they provide a __‘poverty of stimulus’__, which essentially states that the caregivers of children do not provide a good enough standard of language (and often break the rules). 
- So he states that children must have something inbuilt within their brains to help them learn language – he calls this the __‘Language Acquisition Device’__ or the LAD.

### Language Acquisition Device

![Language Acquisition Device](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-04/d58788ed-986f-4001-8e4c-ac2e2aee06ab/shutterstock_268247162.jpg)

- Within the LAD is a knowledge of language structures (universal grammar) and the knowledge becomes activated through experience. 
- __Chomsky__ also claims that around the age of seven, the LAD switches off and then it becomes difficult to learn languages. 
- He states that children will often resist corrections to their mistakes – in this sense, the LAD is instructing them that their way of using language is correct and that the caregivers is wrong.

### Virtuous errors

![Virtuous errors](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/9cf4fd6f-4db2-4b67-a212-2112a4bd2caa/syntax-error-code-.jpg)

- Within his theory, __Chomsky__ states that children make virtuous errors (errors which are made with good intentions e.g. __‘I hurted his feelings’__.)

### Universal grammar

![Universal grammar](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/27b953cf-9db4-4813-bf60-7fb7d47b02b2/words-letters-.jpg)

- In addition, he states that children have a universal grammar which states a set of rules on how to structure language. 
- His theory is supported by the fact that many languages follow the SVO (subject-verb-object) syntax – Brown’s research states that 75% of languages use this syntax.

## Support for Chomsky (Nativism)

The following studies support __Chomsky__'s nativism theory:

### __'The Wug Test'__

![__'The Wug Test'__](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/9c0dbb12-0a16-4a70-a529-5ef20920fb14/niche-bird-nest-.jpg)

- __Jean Berko Gleason__ created what is called __‘The Wug Test’__. 
- In this, children were given a picture of a bird-like creature called a __‘wug’__ and then asked to state things like what two of these creatures would be called (__‘wugs’__). The test invented nouns and verbs to test pluralisation and over-generalisation.

### Findings of __'The Wug Test'__

![Findings of __'The Wug Test'__](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/biology/7.1.1%20-%20Communities/birds-fighting-min.jpg)

- 76% of 4-5-year olds and 97% of 5-7-year olds could correctly use the -s ending for __‘wug’__. 
- The test used words that children will not have encountered before and so proves that children learn the rule and do not imitate.

### __Cruttenden__

![__Cruttenden__](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-11/278bab52-6eaf-42d7-8df0-aa9f42f6607f/Cruttenden-Curve-.png)

- This research was supported by some research by __Cruttenden__ in 1979 in which he defined the __‘u-shaped curve’__:
 - At point 1, the child applies the rule and gets it right.
 - At point 2, the child applies the rule everywhere and gets it wrong.
 - At point 3, the child learns that the rule only works in certain situations.

### Case study: Genie

![Case study: Genie](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/5285205c-0c0d-4b3a-8e65-a04f55e88f27/girl-sad-hurt.jpg)

- In the 1970s, a 13-year-old girl was found by authorities. When authorities found her, she was withered and held her hands like a rabbit. 
- At first, welfare officers assumed she was autistic, but further probing discovered she could barely speak (limited to a very small number of words). 
- Her father had trapped her in a room since she was a toddler, detaining her in a straight-jacket and tying her to a chair. He growled at her if she cried or made any other noise.

### Case study: Genie (cont.)

![Case study: Genie (cont.)](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/1a48c7cb-e25b-47aa-b531-b7f7802ca474/sad-schizophrenic-.jpg)

- Linguists worked extensively with Genie, but because she had passed the critical period, she could not properly acquire language. 
- This case study supports __Chomsky__. As Genie had passed the critical age, __Chomsky__ would argue that the LAD has expired and so cannot be activated. 
- This case study also supports the idea that children cannot learn language by interaction with caregivers alone.

### Other supporting arguments

![Other supporting arguments](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/3fba2487-0107-4ee7-9e33-50edfe5b6f04/checklist-ticklist-tick-list-.jpg)

- Children often produce grammatically non-standard utterances, and so they cannot be copied.
- Inflectional mistakes (Berko Gleason) prove an application of a set of rules.
- __Pinker__ – every utterance is practically unique – children produce utterances they’ve never heard before.
- Culture is not a barrier – all cultures acquire language at a similar age.
- Children notice mistakes (Berko and Brown).
- Non-standard grammatical constructions can make sense.

## Criticisms of Chomsky (Nativism)

There has been some debate over Chomsky’s thoughts. It can be argued that children make lexical mistakes in the sense they miss out words rather than syntactical mistakes.

### __Tomasello__

![__Tomasello__](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-11/f03a8df4-86b1-459d-8843-7bd4acc47cdd/arm-chair-bech-.jpg)

- __Chomsky’s__ theory is often dismissed by critics because it is based on hypothetical thinking rather than real-life children.
 - Leading linguistics like __Tomasello__ have dismissed __Chomsky__ as an __‘armchair linguist’__. 
 - This criticism of Chomsky’s research throws into question the validity of his theory.

### __Pinker__

![__Pinker__](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/8c7fa4fa-1f36-493f-be3b-ebca9e3d6a23/blocks-abc-child-development-.jpg)

- As __Pinker__ points out, nearly every utterance a child produces is a brand-new combination of words, and so he questions whether a child can learn from imitation.

### Overall limitation

![Overall limitation](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/02824c6c-9c33-4df4-b9c9-0115c5fd8ff4/Quarantine-Lab-Science-Internet-.jpg)

- Overall, __Chomsky__’s theory is limited by not having scientific evidence, but is still very important in considering how a child learns language.

## Test yourself on Nativism

- What does LAD stand for in __Chomsky's__ theory of language acquisition?
- At what age does __Chomsky__ claim that the LAD switches off, making it become difficult to learn languages?

[Practise this topic for free](https://app.senecalearning.com/classroom/course/1e248169-fb0c-4ca7-9692-7c46f316728b/section/5233d7e6-ff2b-40f2-bb8d-dc94530377f6/session)

- Previous topic: [2.2.3 Challenging Interactionism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-2-3-challenging-interactionism.md)
- Next topic: [2.2.5 Nativism - Exam Answer](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-2-5-nativism-exam-answer.md)

## English Language: AQA A Level contents

### 1 Language Levels
- 1.1 Assessment Objectives
  - [1.1.1 Assessment Objectives](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-1-1-assessment-objectives.md)
- 1.2 Lexis
  - [1.2.1 Introduction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-2-1-introduction.md)
  - [1.2.2 Common, Proper, Abstract & Concrete Nouns](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-2-2-common-proper-abstract-and-concrete-nouns.md)
  - [1.2.3 Collective Nouns](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-2-3-collective-nouns.md)
  - [1.2.4 Adjectives](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-2-4-adjectives.md)
  - [1.2.5 Main, Auxiliary & Copular Verbs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-2-5-main-auxiliary-and-copular-verbs.md)
  - [1.2.6 Dynamic & Stative Verbs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-2-6-dynamic-and-stative-verbs.md)
  - [1.2.7 Transitive, Intransitive, Active & Passive Verbs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-2-7-transitive-intransitive-active-and-passive-verbs.md)
  - [1.2.8 Mood of Verbs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-2-8-mood-of-verbs.md)
  - [1.2.9 Adverbs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-2-9-adverbs.md)
  - [1.2.10 Personal, Possessive & Reflexive Pronouns](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-2-10-personal-possessive-and-reflexive-pronouns.md)
  - [1.2.11 Relative & Demonstrative Pronouns](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-2-11-relative-and-demonstrative-pronouns.md)
  - [1.2.12 Determiners](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-2-12-determiners.md)
  - [1.2.13 Conjunctions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-2-13-conjunctions.md)
  - [1.2.14 Synonyms, Antonyms & Phonological Features](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-2-14-synonyms-antonyms-and-phonological-features.md)
  - [1.2.15 End of Topic Test - Lexis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-2-15-end-of-topic-test-lexis.md)
- 1.3 Grammar
  - [1.3.1 Morphology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-3-1-morphology.md)
  - [1.3.2 Clauses](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-3-2-clauses.md)
  - [1.3.3 Phrases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-3-3-phrases.md)
  - [1.3.4 Present Tense](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-3-4-present-tense.md)
  - [1.3.5 Past Tense](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-3-5-past-tense.md)
  - [1.3.6 Future Tense](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-3-6-future-tense.md)
  - [1.3.7 End of Topic Test - Grammar](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-3-7-end-of-topic-test-grammar.md)
- 1.4 Semantics & Pragmatics
  - [1.4.1 Semantics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-4-1-semantics.md)
  - [1.4.2 Pragmatics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-4-2-pragmatics.md)
- 1.5 Discourse Structure, Graphology & Orthography
  - [1.5.1 Discourse Structure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-5-1-discourse-structure.md)
  - [1.5.2 Graphology & Orthography](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-5-2-graphology-and-orthography.md)
  - [1.5.3 End of Topic Test - Semantics, Graphology etc.](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/1-5-3-end-of-topic-test-semantics-graphology-etc.md)

### 2 Language, The Individual & Society
- 2.1 Children’s Language Development
  - [2.1.1 The Exam](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-1-1-the-exam.md)
  - [2.1.2 Phonemes, Vocal Tract & Articulation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-1-2-phonemes-vocal-tract-and-articulation.md)
  - [2.1.3 Writing About Phonemes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-1-3-writing-about-phonemes.md)
  - [2.1.4 Phonological Simplification](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-1-4-phonological-simplification.md)
  - [2.1.5 A Child's First Year & Consonant Acquisition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-1-5-a-childs-first-year-and-consonant-acquisition.md)
  - [2.1.6 Beginning Stages of Language](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-1-6-beginning-stages-of-language.md)
  - [2.1.7 Lexical Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-1-7-lexical-development.md)
  - [2.1.8 Stages of Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-1-8-stages-of-development.md)
  - [2.1.9 End of Topic Test - Child Language Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-1-9-end-of-topic-test-child-language-development.md)
- 2.2 Children's Language Development - Theories
  - [2.2.1 Behaviourism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-2-1-behaviourism.md)
  - [2.2.2 Interactionism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-2-2-interactionism.md)
  - [2.2.3 Challenging Interactionism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-2-3-challenging-interactionism.md)
  - [2.2.4 Nativism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-2-4-nativism.md)
  - [2.2.5 Nativism - Exam Answer](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-2-5-nativism-exam-answer.md)
  - [2.2.6 Cognitivism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-2-6-cognitivism.md)
  - [2.2.7 Social Constructionism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-2-7-social-constructionism.md)
  - [2.2.8 Writing About Spoken Acquisition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-2-8-writing-about-spoken-acquisition.md)
  - [2.2.9 End of Topic Test - Development Theories](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-2-9-end-of-topic-test-development-theories.md)
- 2.3 Literacy Development: Reading
  - [2.3.1 Introduction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-3-1-introduction.md)
  - [2.3.2 Phonics vs Whole Word](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-3-2-phonics-vs-whole-word.md)
  - [2.3.3 Debates in Reading](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-3-3-debates-in-reading.md)
  - [2.3.4 Modelling Reading Acquisition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-3-4-modelling-reading-acquisition.md)
  - [2.3.5 Other Reading Theories](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-3-5-other-reading-theories.md)
  - [2.3.6 End of Topic Test - Reading](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-3-6-end-of-topic-test-reading.md)
- 2.4 Literacy Development: Writing
  - [2.4.1 Orthography](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-4-1-orthography.md)
  - [2.4.2 Kroll's Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-4-2-krolls-theory.md)
  - [2.4.3 Barclay's Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-4-3-barclays-theory.md)
  - [2.4.4 Creativity vs Accuracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-4-4-creativity-vs-accuracy.md)
  - [2.4.5 Other Writing Theories](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-4-5-other-writing-theories.md)
  - [2.4.6 The Exam](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-4-6-the-exam.md)
  - [2.4.7 End of Topic Test - Writing](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/2-4-7-end-of-topic-test-writing.md)

### 3 Language Diversity & Change
- 3.1 The Importance of Gendered Language
  - [3.1.1 Writing About Gender](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-1-1-writing-about-gender.md)
  - [3.1.2 Dominance Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-1-2-dominance-theory.md)
  - [3.1.3 Interruptions - Zimmerman & West](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-1-3-interruptions-zimmerman-and-west.md)
  - [3.1.4 Deficit Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-1-4-deficit-theory.md)
  - [3.1.5 Difference Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-1-5-difference-model.md)
  - [3.1.6 Difference Model - Men](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-1-6-difference-model-men.md)
  - [3.1.7 Diversity Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-1-7-diversity-model.md)
  - [3.1.8 End of Topic Test - Gendered Language](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-1-8-end-of-topic-test-gendered-language.md)
- 3.2 Social Groups
  - [3.2.1 Writing About Social Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-2-1-writing-about-social-groups.md)
  - [3.2.2 Social Class](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-2-2-social-class.md)
  - [3.2.3 Social Class 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-2-3-social-class-2.md)
  - [3.2.4 Age](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-2-4-age.md)
  - [3.2.5 Age - Teen Speak](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-2-5-age-teen-speak.md)
  - [3.2.6 Milroy’s Belfast Study](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-2-6-milroys-belfast-study.md)
  - [3.2.7 Labov’s Martha’s Vineyard Study](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-2-7-labovs-marthas-vineyard-study.md)
  - [3.2.8 End of Topic Test - Social Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-2-8-end-of-topic-test-social-groups.md)
- 3.3 Occupational Groups
  - [3.3.1 Writing About Occupational Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-3-1-writing-about-occupational-groups.md)
  - [3.3.2 Jargon](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-3-2-jargon.md)
  - [3.3.3 Conversations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-3-3-conversations.md)
  - [3.3.4 Hierarchy & Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-3-4-hierarchy-and-power.md)
  - [3.3.5 End of Topic Test - Occupational Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-3-5-end-of-topic-test-occupational-groups.md)
- 3.4 Accents & Dialects
  - [3.4.1 Writing About Accent & Dialect](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-4-1-writing-about-accent-and-dialect.md)
  - [3.4.2 Introduction to Accents & Dialects](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-4-2-introduction-to-accents-and-dialects.md)
  - [3.4.3 Accents - Matched Guide Experiment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-4-3-accents-matched-guide-experiment.md)
  - [3.4.4 Accents - Received Pronunciation & Brummie](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-4-4-accents-received-pronunciation-and-brummie.md)
  - [3.4.5 Dialects - Dialectal Variations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-4-5-dialects-dialectal-variations.md)
  - [3.4.6 Accent & Dialect Case Study - London](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-4-6-accent-and-dialect-case-study-london.md)
  - [3.4.7 End of Topic Test - Accents & Dialects](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-4-7-end-of-topic-test-accents-and-dialects.md)
- 3.5 Language Change
  - [3.5.1 Writing About Language Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-5-1-writing-about-language-change.md)
  - [3.5.2 Modelling Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-5-2-modelling-change.md)
  - [3.5.3 Modelling Change 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-5-3-modelling-change-2.md)
  - [3.5.4 Lexical Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-5-4-lexical-change.md)
  - [3.5.5 Semantic Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-5-5-semantic-change.md)
  - [3.5.6 End of Topic Test - Language Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-5-6-end-of-topic-test-language-change.md)
- 3.6 History of English
  - [3.6.1 Old English](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-6-1-old-english.md)
  - [3.6.2 Old English 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-6-2-old-english-2.md)
  - [3.6.3 Middle English](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-6-3-middle-english.md)
  - [3.6.4 Middle English 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-6-4-middle-english-2.md)
  - [3.6.5 Early Modern English](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-6-5-early-modern-english.md)
  - [3.6.6 Late Modern English](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-6-6-late-modern-english.md)
  - [3.6.7 Present Day English](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-6-7-present-day-english.md)
  - [3.6.8 Global English](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-6-8-global-english.md)
  - [3.6.9 American English](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-6-9-american-english.md)
  - [3.6.10 Modelling Global English](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-6-10-modelling-global-english.md)
  - [3.6.11 End of Topic Test - History of English](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/english-language/aqa/3-6-11-end-of-topic-test-history-of-english.md)